Performance assessments should be complemented with a systematic strategy of student assessment. In this section I will describe a scheme that integrates learning theory, instruction and assessment.
An effective assessment strategy should be based on the philosophy or rationale of the course or unit that students are studying, as well as the intended learning outcomes of the experience. Advocating a rationale based on science thinking skills and hands-on learning, but assessing outcomes using true-false and fill-in-the-blank tests is incongruent. We will advocate an assessment strategy is is correlated with rationale and intended outcomes.
A valid assessment system must incorporate each of these outcome areas: cognitions, cognitive skills, psychomotor skills, and affects. One plan that meets this requirement is the Florida Assessment Plan which was developed at Florida State University (FSU) and Georgia State University (Hassard, Rachelson, and Basket). Based on separate research and development projects at these universities, the system incorporates learning outcomes and assessment items based on cognitive thinking, affective learning and psychomotor learning.
In this system, eight categories of intellectual skills or type of learning were identified and used to create a matrix of outcomes and assessments in Earth science, life science and physical science. Science teachers have access to the system via a telecommunications network housed at Florida State University. Let's take a look at the system, and then use it as part of an assessment strategy for science mini-units, units and courses of study.
The eight categories of intellectual skills or type of learning incorporate cognitions, cognitive skills, affects and psychomotor skills. The categories include:
1. Motor chains2. Verbal chains
3. Discriminates
4. Concept
5. Rules
6. Problem solving
7. Cognitive strategy
8. Attitudes
As you can see, the first category describes psychomotor skills; categories two through seven include cognitions and cognitive skills, and affects are identified in category eight. By using this system, you will be able to take a systematic approach to developing assessment items that will constitute quizzes and tests. Take a moment and look at the chart below which shows how the intellectual skills are correlated to learning outcomes, human performance, and assessment items.
(Action
Word) 1. Motor
chain Manipulates Executes a skilled
motor performance Weighs substance on
a balance 2. Verbal
chain Recalls States fact,
generalization or descriptions Lists minerals in
Moh's scale of hardness 3.
Discriminates Discriminates Distinguished
objects or object features as same or different Tells whether
photographs of galaxies are same or different 4.
Concept Identifies or
classifies Classifies an object
or situation in accordance with a definition Classifies granite
as an igneous rock 5. Rules Demonstrates Applies a rule, law,
or concept to specific example Determines density
of a mineral 6. Problem
solving Generates Generates a solution
to a novel problem Determines effect of
velocity on erosion in stream 7. Cognitive
strategy Originates Originates a novel
problem and solution Gets an answer to "I
wonder what would happen if..." Attitude Chooses Chooses a course of
action, expresses a feeling toward a person, object, or
event Writes a letter to
congressional representative supporting air quality
standards
Let's look at some examples of assessment items given several learning outcomes. You can refer to these examples as model assessment items and make use of them as you design your own.
In an inquiry oriented, hands-on science course, students will be involved in the manipulation of laboratory apparatus, scientific instruments, and the tools necessary to carry out investigations and activities. Although the assessment of motor chains may seem to include only psychomotor skills, it is important to note that cognitive skills are usually involved in any activity involving this form of learning. However, providing students feedback through psychomotor assessments is a powerful way to reinforce the importance of motor skills and learning in the science classroom.
Learning outcome:
Given a graduated cylinder, colored water and an empty container and asked to put 40mL of liquid into the empty container, the student manipulates the beaker and the graduated cylinder by measuring the 40 mL of the liquid and pouring this measured amount into the empty container.
Assessment items:
Here is a graduated cylinder, some colored water in a beaker and an empty container. Pour 40 mL of the colored liquid into the empty container.
There are six categories of assessment items that when combined provide measures for cognitions and cognitive skills. There is a heirarchy implied in the categories, as there was a heirarchy in the Bloom's Taxonomy, which was discussed earlier. I mention Bloom's Taxonomy here because many test developers use Bloom's Taxonomy to develop assessment items. Developing items using the taxonomy is a valid approach to assessment. However, in this section, we will use the Florida approach because it is more closely aligned with the recent emphasis on cognitive thinking and cognitive science. I will present the six categories of cognitive thinking in the following sequence: verbal chains, discriminates, concept, rules, problem solving and cognitive strategy.
Verbal Chains.
In this form of thinking, students are involved in recalling information, either verbally or in writing. This indicates that the student knows the proper sequence of words in response to a request for verbal information. This category represents the lowest level of cognitive thinking---the recall of information.
Learning Outcome
Given a volume of a liquid (melted paraffin) that is changing from a liquid to a solid, the student identifies the change by stating that the liquid is "freezing."
Assessment
When the liquid paraffin forms solid paraffin, what process has taken place? (Answer: freezing)
Discriminates
When students discriminate, they decide whether or not things are identical. Discrimination does not imply that they can identify the specific properties of the things which are the same or different.
Learning Outcome
Given granite and a set of igneous rocks, the student discriminates between granite and other plutonic rocks.
Assessment
Indicate with a "d" or "s" whether the other rocks are the same or different from granite for each characteristic listed.
Characteristic Color Crystal
size Hardness Texture Rock 1 . . . . Rock 2 . . . . Rock 3 . . . .
Concept
(learning).
In concept learning, students recognize a class of objects, object characteristics, or events. This form of learning, students have learned the concept of class to the extent that they can classify examples of it by instant recognition. Recognition can involve any one or all of the senses---sight, hearing, smell, taste, sound.(see example 1) Concept learning also involves classification. In this case, students use a definition to put something into a class (or some things into classes). Student behavior in this case indicates they know the parameters of the class or classes, and they can either verbalize them or use them when asked to do so (see example 2).
Learning Outcome
Given the names of parts of a typical plant cell, the student draws a cell and names the given parts.
Assessment
Draw and label a cell with these parts present.a. cell wallb. nucleus
c. chloroplasts
Learning Outcome
Given a map of of the moon with features labelled, the student classifies the labelled moon features according to age.
Assessment
The map shows a region of the moon with three areas marked. In boxes to the right of the map place the letters of the features in order by age, listing the youngest first.
Rules.
Rule learning involves students in applying specific concepts, rules or procedures to a specific task. The key notion is the process of applying rules. Application is an important part of the learning cycle that was developed earlier in the text. Students need opportunities to apply what they are learning, and they need assessment feedback on their progress.
Learning Outcome
Given a hypothetical situation in which the student crashes on the moon and a list of items (see drawings in Figure 9.29) that survive the crash, the student chooses survival items in terms of importance for reaching a moon base.
Assessment
Imagine you are a member of a moon landing crew and your space ship has crashed on the lighted side of the moon. Your survival depends on reaching a moon base 200 miles away. Below are listed 8 items left intact after landing (these items are also shown as cards). Rank them in order of importance in terms of reaching the moon base. Place a number 1 by the most important, number 2 by the second most important and so on.
_____50 feet nylon rope
_____45 calibre pistol
_____star map
_____5 gallons of water
_____box of matches
_____two 100-pound tanks of oxygen
_____food concentrate
_____life raft
Problem
Solving
When students put together two or more rules, definitions, or concepts to solve a problem, they are generating ideas, solutions, procedures. Problem solving is another application process of science concepts. Students need to be given many opportunities to solve problems, and assessment strategies need to include problems-to-solve.
Learning Outcome
Given a hypothetical situation describing an individual's energy requirements and given materials which model these needs, the student generates a system to fulfill the energy requirements.
Assessment
Imagine this situation. Your neighbors are planning to add a garage to their house. Their energy needs include: lighting, heating, and running a motor for the garage door. The energy they will use is electricity. You have been given a dry cell battery, a light bulb, a piece of nichrome wire, and a small motor. Using any or all of these materials make a system which shows how your neighbors can meet their energy needs.
Cognitive
Strategy
Cognitive strategy refers to student creativity. The key notion here is originating a plan or an idea. Cognitive strategy involves the combination of ideas to propose and solve problems. In this case, students know the material sufficiently well enough to identify a problem area and organize the proper concepts and procedures to solve it. Many of the performance tasks that were introduced in an earlier section of this chapter involve this form of thinking.
Learning Outcome
Given an organic and inorganic fertilizer, soil, containers and seeds, the students designs and conducts an experiment to find out which fertilizer is more effective.
Assessment
Before you are the materials you may use in order to carry out an experiment. You are to design it yourself. Its purpose is to determine which fertilizer is better for making the plants healthier and produce more peppers.(Rewritten for groups). Before your team are the materials you may use in order to carry out an experiment. You are to work together with your team members to design the experiment. Its purpose is to determine which fertilizer is better for making the plants healthier and produce more peppers.
Affective outcomes can be assessed, just as we have shown how to assess psychomotor and cognitive outcomes. In the model being presented here, affects are classified as attitudes.
Attitudes.
Attitudes involve among other behaviors, choosing. If students make a choice, they are deciding to behave in a certain way in repeated situations. Choosing, however, does guarantee that a student will act in a certain way. (Note: see the discussion on values and attitudes in Chapter 6) A student might choose to say that smoking is harmful, but after school be seen smoking a cigarette. Or a student might say that recycling is an important part of a families' responsibility for the environment, and then not use trash stream separators at restaurants or in the school cafeteria.
Learning Outcome
Given a list of endangered animal species and a statement that they are being killed never to be seen again by humans, the student chooses to speak in favor of protecting the animals.
Assessment
The bald eagle, blue whale, California condor, Everglades kite, red wolf, key deer, cougar, alligator, and whooping crane are all species of animals in the U.S. which are endangered species. These animals may all be killed and may never be part of the Earth's ecosystem. What should be done about this problem?
There are other techniques that you can use to assess affects (see Doran, 1980). One technique that you might find useful to include is the semantic differential. To use the technique the teacher selects a concept or idea, and then develops a set of relevant bipolar adjectives or adjective phrases. For example, suppose you wanted to assess your student's attitude toward science. You could use the following semantic differential scale.
Meaningful _____:_____:_____:_____:_____:_____ Meaningless
Bad _____:_____:_____:_____:_____:_____ Good
Useful _____:_____:_____:_____:_____:_____ Useless
Confusing _____:_____:_____:_____:_____:_____ Clear
Unimportant _____:_____:_____:_____:_____:_____ Important
Simple _____:_____:_____:_____:_____:_____ Complex
The students would simply check along the continuum what their attitude is with respect to each bipolar pair. Doran recommends that it is useful to summarize the entire class's responses and then calculate a mean for each bipolar adjective pair.
Other "concepts" can be assessed using this technique. For example, you could use this technique to assess student attitudes about the following:
Chemical, Rocks, Science course, This unit, Alcohol
For each of these you would identify relevant bipolar adjectives and then make a form similar to the one above. There are other techniques that can be utilized to assess affects including writing term papers, debates, discussions of issues, interviews, and reports.